This section outlines print resources in their various formats and offers questions to ask when judging their appropriateness, followed by an outline of how to evaluate Internet search results.
Research materials, print or electronic, can be found in the following broad categories:
Primary Sources
Materials developed to confer information without opinion or evaluation. Familiar primary resources include government reports, diaries and raw statistical data.
Secondary Sources
Materials developed from an analysis and evaluation of primary and other secondary resources. An example would be an author writing about results published in a government report. Because secondary sources are created by authors with an expressed (or unexpressed) opinion on their topic, primary sources are considered unbiased.
Peer Reviewed
Another measure of quality and objectivity is whether an item appears in peer-reviewed or refereed publications. Distinguished journals have experts who evaluate articles for their content and methodology before the article can be published. Some journals make specific mention of their peer-review status, but clues are:
Footnotes or reference lists of the material the author used to write the article
Abstract or summary at the beginning of the article
Discrete areas of the article which explain methodology, results, conclusions, etc.
Research needs can be met by an infinite combination of information sources. Those listed here are some of the most familiar formats for presentation. It is helpful to remember that although tradition no longer holds these types of publications to paper, electronic versions still attempt to answer the same questions asked of their print counterparts.
Types of Resourses
Almanacs - a collection of current and historical statistical information updated and published annually. Almanacs can answer straightforward, factual questions such as "What is the population of Niagara Falls, NY?" Key Considerations: How current is the information included in the almanac?
Atlases - can be either books or collections of maps. Their perspective is either current or historical, and contains other information such as population or geological features of an area. A closely related information source is a gazetteer or list of geographical names and/or physical features of an area. Gazetteers can answer more substantive questions about a location than an atlas, such as helping to explain the current form of governance and administrative structure of a location. Key Considerations: How well are the atlases and gazetteers indexed? Is it easy to find smaller divisions of a nation such as cities, counties, and states? Who published the resource? Is the publisher experienced in preparing this type of document? How up-to-date is the item?
Bibliographies - are extensive lists of other information resources. They can be compiled based upon publication dates of the material covered; focus on material published in a specific country; or list items for a specific subject. Key Considerations: Who is responsible for creating the bibliography? What qualifies them to write a bibliography of that nature? How did they decide what to include or exclude?
Biographical Sources - provides basic biographical information or point them to additional resources for more information. Almost always profiling individuals, sources can include a person's dates of birth/death, education, career and personal histories. Key Considerations: Is this information comprehensive? Are the facts right?
Dictionaries - define words and help users confirm spelling and pronunciation. They can be helpful in understanding how words should be used and how they are actually used. Related publications include thesauri, usage guides, and books of quotations. Key Considerations: Because dictionaries purport to be authorities on words and usage, who is responsible for the dictionary contents? What is the audience for whom the dictionary was prepared?
Directories - can list people, institutions or organizations. Contents usually include addresses, phone numbers, and relevant affiliations and are arranged alphabetically or in another useful order such as geographical location. Key Considerations: How current is the data? Does it include the desired group of people or organizations?
Encyclopedias - are methodical attempts to publish a summary of the world's knowledge. One of the most attractive features of encyclopedias is their ability to help users gain a basic understanding of a completely unfamiliar subject and build a framework from which more research could be done. Encyclopedias can be written for a variety of audiences and can aim to be very broad and cover almost every subject, or focus specifically on one subject. Key Considerations: What is the target?
Handbooks - are guides on a specific topic. Containing factual and comprehensive information, handbooks are very useful tools to answer questions like "Who was the first person to fly an airplane across the Atlantic Ocean?" Key Considerations: How accurate is the information? Are there any errata updates to correct published mistakes?
Indexes and Abstracts - both indicate where to find the original document being sought. Abstracts go farther and provide a brief synopsis of the document's contents. This can help users decide if they wish to continue their pursuit of the original document. Most indexes and abstracts are dedicated to covering a specific type of material (newspapers, journals, etc.) and a scan can tell researchers which resources tend to contain more useful writings on a topic. Key Considerations: What publications are indexed? How often is the index updated? Can users refer to sections organized by subject, author, and publication?
Yearbooks - publish facts, events, and analysis of events of the year preceding the date of publication. Yearbooks can provide rather detailed overviews of events and are useful for analyzing changes in many segments of society. Key Considerations: The comprehensiveness of coverage for one year can vary substantially among yearbooks.
Content and presentation are both important criteria for deciding how useful a Web site will be. In this outline, however, greater weight is given to assessing the value of the information presented and other helpful considerations. Below are fundamental measurements of evaluation are authority, accuracy, objectivity, currency, and coverage.
Is the author's name clearly visible? Is there a link to the author's e-mail address?
What are the author's credentials to write about their chosen topic? Consider verifying any statements of qualification directly, or through a third-party source of biographical information.
Does the author belong to an organization? If the page is authored by an organization, what additional information is made available about them? Hint: URL domain name extensions can suggest what type of organization it is (.edu - education sites, .gov - government sites, .org - organization sites, .com - commercial sites, .net - network infrastructures, etc.)
Look at the Web address (URL) to find out the source of the information and the server on which it resides.
Is there evidence of bias in the information presented? Are there words present that perhaps convey the author's opinion?
What is the purpose of the page? Who is its intended audience? Is it designed to sell, inform, or persuade visitors? Does it promote the opinions of a specific group?
Is there advertising on the page? Can it be easily distinguished from the information content?
Are there links to additional resources on the topic or related subjects?
Can the subject be fully covered with Internet resources or can print material supplement?
There are several Web sites with more extensive evaluation guidelines. Those authored by researchers and librarians tend to have a better understanding of what will make a site helpful to a wide variety of users. For more information see:
Evaluating Information Found on the Internet(Johns Hopkins University)
